The Second Sino-Japanese War, also known as the Second China-Japan War or the Chinese War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, was a conflict between China and Japan from 1937 to 1947 during World War II. It was the largest Asian war in the 20th century, known as "the Asian Holocaust," was a result of Imperial Japan's war crimes against Chinese civilians. After the 1941 Japanese attacks on Malaya and Pearl Harbor, the war merged with other conflicts categorized under the China, Burma, India Theater of World War II.
China was aided by the Soviet Union, the UK, the US, and Nazi Germany during the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. Around 20 million people were killed, mostly civilians. Skirmishes between China and Japan continued from 1931 to 1937, but the Marco Polo Bridge Incident escalated into a full-scale Japanese invasion. Japan captured Beijing and Shanghai by 1937. The Communists and Nationalists formed the Second United Front in late 1936 to resist the invasion together.
Background and Prelude[]
Previous War[]
The Second Sino-Japanese War arose from the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, during which Japan conquered China and signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, granting Taiwan and Korea their independence. Japan also annexed the Senkaku Islands and attempted to conquer the Liaodong Peninsula, but was compelled to return it to China due to intervention by France, Germany, and Russia. The Qing Dynasty was on the verge of collapse due to internal revolts and unequal treaties, whereas Japan rose as a major power through modernization initiatives. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan destroyed the Russian Empire, capturing Tailen and southern Sakhalin and establishing a protectorate over Korea.
Warlord Era in China[]
In 1911, the Qing Army led a revolution across China's southern provinces, leading to the appointment of Yuan Shikai as temporary prime minister. Shikai, who wanted to remain in power, agreed to abolish the monarchy and establish a new republican government under the condition of being appointed president of China. The Beiyang government was proclaimed in March 1912, and Yuan Shikai began to amass power. In 1913, parliamentary political leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated, and Yuan Shikai forced the parliament to pass a bill to strengthen the president's power and restore the imperial system. However, there was little support for an imperial restoration, leading to protests and demonstrations. Yuan's attempts at restoring the monarchy triggered the National Protection War, and Yuan Shikai was overthrown after only a few months. In June 1916, control of China fell into the hands of the Beiyang Army leadership, which was a military dictatorship with different warlords controlling each province. This instability led to China's decline in prosperity and economy, providing an opportunity for nationalistic politicians in Japan to press for territorial expansion.
Twenty-One Demands[]
In 1915, Japan sought to extort political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by Yuan Shikai's regime. Post-WWII, Japan gained influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests. China remained fragmented under the Beiyang Government and struggled to resist foreign incursions. To unify China and defeat regional warlords, the Kuomintang launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928, with limited Soviet Union assistance.
Jinan Incident[]
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the KMT invaded southern and central China, leading to the Jinan incident of 1928. Japanese military clashes with the Chinese government escalated, resulting in the deaths of several officials and injuries to 6,123 Chinese civilians. The incident worsened relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan, as the Japanese military killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan.
Reunification of China (1928)[]
Zhang Zuolin, a leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria, retreated to Manchuria as the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing. He was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, later declared allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing, reunifying China.
1929 Sino-Soviet war[]
The 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict escalated tensions in the Northeast, leading to the Mukden Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army's victory over Xueliang's forces reasserted Soviet control over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) in Manchuria, revealing Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers noticed. This victory stunned Japan, as Manchuria was central to Japan's East Asia policy. The 1929 Red Army victory reopened the Manchurian problem, prompting the Kwantung Army to act quickly.
Chinese Communist Party[]
The Central Plains War broke out across China in 1930, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing focused on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance."
Historical development[]
Invasion of Manchuria and Northern China[]
The internecine warfare in China provided Japan with opportunities, as it saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for manufactured goods, and a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. After the Mukden Incident in September 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria outright, accusing it of systematically violating its rights. After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932 and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler.
China appealed to the League of Nations for help, leading to the publication of the Lytton Report, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria and causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations. Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident, with the demilitarization of Shanghai and an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies. In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region, and the Tanggu Truce established in its aftermath gave Japan control of Rehe province and a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beiping-Tianjin region.
Japan exploited China's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. The political power of the Nationalist government was limited to the area of the Yangtze River Delta, while other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan, known as the Specialization of North China. This policy was most effective in the area of Inner Mongolia and Hebei.
Events: 1937[]
| Date | Event | Location | Description | Picture |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7 July 1937 | Marco-Polo Bridge Incident | Vicinity of Peking, China | On July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops clashed near the Marco Polo Bridge, leading to the fall of Beijing and Tianjin to Japanese forces. On July 29, 5,000 East Hebei Army troops mutinied in Tongzhou, killing 260 civilians, mostly Japanese. The violence shook public opinion in Japan, triggering the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. |  |
| 7 July- August 8
1937 |
Battle of Beiping–Tianjin | Vicinity of Beiping-Tianjin | On 8 July 1937, the Japanese China Garrison Army attacked Wanping after an ultimatum to search for a missing soldier expired. Chinese General Song Zheyuan attempted to avert war through diplomacy. On 9 July, the Japanese offered a ceasefire and truce, requiring the replacement of the Chinese 37th Division with another from the 29th Army. However, Japanese violations increased, and reinforcements arrived. Lieutenant General Kanichiro Tashiro died on 12 July, and Lieutenant General Kiyoshi Katsuki replaced him. Muslim General Ma Bufang prepared to lead the Chinese army against the Japanese. |  |
| 13 August-26 November
1937 |
Battle of Shanghai | Shanghai, Wusong | The Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo initially resisted escalating the conflict into a full-scale war, but the KMT determined that the "breaking point" of Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai-shek mobilized the central government's army and air force, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. Chinese forces under Zhang Zhizhong were ordered to capture or destroy the Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting and more than 3,000 civilian deaths. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties to destroy the Chinese Air Force, but faced unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Curtiss Hawk II/Hawk III and P-26/281 Peashooter fighter squadrons. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude" fighters into the Shanghai-Nanjing theater of operations helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority. The Japanese Army committed over 200,000 troops, naval vessels, and aircraft to capture Shanghai, and their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. Japan did not immediately occupy the Shanghai International Settlement or the Shanghai French Concession, which were outside of China's control due to the treaty port system. |  |
| 17 December
1937 (For Six Weeks) |
Battle of Nanjing and Massacre | Nanjing, China | The IJA captured Nanjing in 1937, leading to the Nanjing Massacre, a series of mass killings and atrocities. The number of Chinese killed in the massacre is debated, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to over 300,000. Over the next several weeks, Japanese troops perpetrated numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings. |  |
Events: 1938[]
In January 1938, most conventional Kuomintang forces had either been defeated or no longer offered major resistance to Japanese advances. However, Communist-led rural resistance remained active. At the start of 1938, the Japanese government and GHQ had lost control of the Japanese army in China, leading to the Battle of Taierzhuang. The IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack Wuhan, the political, economic, and military center of rump China. They captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take Zhengzhou. |-
| Date | Event | Location | Description | Picture |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 24 March April 71938 | Battle of Taierzhuang | Tai'erzhuang Pizhou | On 25 March, the Japanese attacked Tai'erzhuang, capturing the north-eastern gate and capturing the Wenchang Pavilion. Tang Enbo cut off the Japanese attackers, but they were forced into the Chenghuang temple, which was set on fire, killing the entire Japanese force. The next day, the Japanese launched another assault, capturing the eastern portion of the district and breaching the north-western corner.
Between March and April 1938, the Nationalist Air Force of China deployed squadrons of fighter-attack planes to support Taierzhuang operations. On 29 March, the Chinese stormed the Wenchang pavilion, annihilating the entire Japanese garrison, except for four Japanese troops taken as POWs. By early April, the Japanese had taken two-thirds of Tai'erzhuang, but the Chinese still held the South Gate. On 3 April, the Chinese 2nd Group Army launched a counter-offensive, with the 30th and 110th Divisions fighting northwards into Beiluo and Nigou. On 6 April, the Chinese 85th and 52nd Army linked up at Taodun, capturing Ganlugou. The Japanese line collapsed, forcing both the 10th and 5th Divisions to retreat. However, the Japanese's superior mobility allowed them to prevent a complete rout by the Chinese forces. Two thousand Japanese soldiers fought their way out of Tai'erzhuang, leaving eight thousand dead, some committed hara kiri. |
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| Somewhere in 1938 | Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region Clash | Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region | In 1938, Japan gained victory in the Battle of Wuhan and redeployed 50,000 troops to the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region. The Eighth Route Army attacked the Japanese, causing casualties and a retreat. The Japanese military adjusted its tactics, building more roads, blocking rivers and roads, expanding militia, and using systematic violence on civilians to destroy the economy. They mandated the confiscation of the Eighth Route Army's goods and used this as a pretext to engage in grave robbery. As Japanese casualties and costs increased, the Imperial General Headquarters ordered massive air raids on civilian targets, targeting the Kuomintang's provisional capital of Chongqing and other major cities in unoccupied China. This led to many deaths, injuries, and homelessness. | 
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| 13 June 1938 | 1938 Yellow River flood | Yellow River | The 1938 Yellow River flood was a man-made disaster that occurred from June 1938 to January 1947, caused by the Chinese National Army's intentional destruction of dikes on the Yellow River. The flood served as a scorched-earth defensive line during the Second Sino-Japanese War, safeguarding the Shaanxi section of the Longhai railway, making it difficult for the Japanese Army to mobilize into Shaanxi, and crushing the tracks and bridges of the Beijing-Wuhan Railway, Tianjin-Pukou Railway, and Longhai Railway. The flood also aimed to stop the quick mobilization of the Japanese Army from North China into the Battle of Wuhan.
The flood achieved the strategic intent, but it also resulted in human cost, economic damages, and environmental impact. 30,000 to 89,000 civilians drowned in Henan, Anhui, and Jiangsu provinces, while 400,000 to 500,000 died from drowning, famine, and plague. The Yellow River was diverted to a new course over farmland until the repair of the dykes in January 1947, causing five million civilians to live on inundated land until 1947. Inspired by this strategic outcome, dykes elsewhere in China, especially along the Yangtze, were later destroyed by the Chinese and the Japanese. |
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